Emerging Adulthood: Biosocial Development
Emerging adulthood extends from age 18 to roughly age 25.
Ψ In adulthood chronological age is an imperfect guide to development. Individual variations from cohort norms
must be considered.Ψ Developmentalist's believe that cohort & age do affect behavior, therefore categorization
can be useful. The categories for adults(as of 2008) follow.
Age Generation Born
18 to 25 Generation Next 1981-1988
25 to 40 Generation X 1966-1980
40 to 60 Baby boomers 1946-1964
60+ Seniors before 1946
Ψ Senescence (sen-ESS-ents): The state of physical decline, in which the body gradually becomes less strong &
efficient with age.
• Senescence starts when overall growth stops. The impact of ageing depends on lifestyle, & on the decisions
made each day about consumption & exertion!
Ψ Homeostasis: The adjustment of the body's system to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium.
• Many body functions seek homeostasis.
• As the body ages, it takes longer for these adjustments to occur.
• Older bodies fine it harder to adapt to stresses.
Ψ Organ Reserve: The extra capacity of the heart, lungs, and other organs that make it possible for the body to
withstand moments of intense or prolonged stress.
• With age, organ reserve is gradually depleted, but the rate of depletion depends on the individual's general state
of health.
Ψ Most emerging adults believe that marriage is a serious & desirable commitment that they except to achieve.
Ψ Attitudes about the purpose of sex (in the US) fall into three categories. They follow.
• reproduction - 1/4 believe.
• relationship - Most believe it's to strengthen pair bonding.
• recreation - 1/4 believe.
Ψ Homeostasis: The adjustment of the body's system to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium. There is
a homeostatic set point for weight.Ψ Set point - particular body weight that an individual’s homeostatic processes strive
to maintain. The set point is not rigidly fixed and is Influenced by the genes & environmental factors.
Ψ Body Mass Index (BMI) - the ratio of a person’s weight in kilograms divided by his or her height in meters squared.
BMI = w/h2 where:
w = weight in kilograms (pounds divided by 2.2)
h = height in meters (inches divided by 39.4)
OR: BMI = Weight in pounds divided by ( height in inches times height in inches ) times 703. That is (in Imperial units):
BMI = w/h2 x 703
For Adults;
• below 18 on the BMI scale is considered anorexic.
• between 19 & 25 is "good".
• 26 to 30 is considered overweight.
• 30 or above is considered obese.
• 40 or above is considered morbidly obese.Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa - eating disorder in which a person restricts eating to the point of emaciation, possible starvation,
and sometimes death (20%). ~1% of young adult & adolescent females are anorexic. According to DSM-IV-R there
are 4 symptoms:
• Refusal to maintain body weight at least 85% of normal
• Intense fear of gaining weight
• Disturbed body perception & denial of problem
• In adolescent & adult females, lack of menstruation
Ψ Anorexia is a disease of social context, in other words, the culture supports it. (Mitchell & McCarty, 2000)
Bulimia Nervosa - eating disorder in which the person, usually a female, engages repeatedly in episodes of binge
eating followed by purging through induced vomiting or use of laxatives. 1% and 3% of women in the US are clinically
bulimic during early adulthood. People with this condition are usually close to normal in weight, unlikely to starve, but
experience serious health problems such as damage to gastrointestinal system & cardiac arrest.
• Chronic dieting - pursuit of thinness that has led many people to feel dissatisfied with body shape, weights,
preoccupied with food, fearful of fat, and to frequently be on a diet. (often have negative self thoughts, feel lapse
of failure)
• Binge eating disorder - consumption of large quantities of food in a very short period of time until the individual is
uncomfortably full. Similar to bulimia but there is no form of purging (laxatives, vomiting, etc) following a binge
• Compulsive overeating - uncontrollable eating and consequent weight gain. Use food to cope with stress, emotional
conflicts, etc.
• Statistics
• Development of anorexia nervosa & bulimia nervosa are almost habitually preceded by dietary restriction.
• College women & athletes are particularly at risk
• 44% adult women, 29% adult men, 44% adolescent girls, 15% adolescent boys in the U.S. describe themselves as
losing weight.
Why Women?
• Psychoanalytic hypothesis is that women develop eating disorders because of a conflict with their mothers, who
provided their 1st nourishment and from whom the daughters can’t psychically separate.
• Learning theory notes that for some people with low-esteem, fasting, bingeing, and purging “have powerful effects as
immediate reinforces-relieving states of emotional distress and tension” (Gordon, 1990), thus setting up a destructive
stimulus-response chain.
• One cognitive explanation is that as women compete with men in business and industry, they want to project a strong,
self-controlled, masculine image antithetical to the buxom, fleshy body of the ideal woman of the past.
• Sociocultural explanations include the contemporary cultural pressure to be “slim and trim” and model-like - a pressure
that seems to be felt particularly by unmarried young women seeking autonomy from their parents, especially when the
parent espouse traditional values (Nasser, 1997).
• Epigenetic Systems notes that girls who are overwhelmed with the stresses of puberty may discover that self-starvation
makes their menstrual periods cease, their sexual hormones decrease, and their curves disappear - all of which relieve the
pressures to marry and reproduce.Risk TakingΨ Those who are genetically impulsive, & male , & emerging adults are
most likely to be brave or foolish.
Ψ Edgework: Occupations or recreational activities that involve a degree of risk or danger, The prospect of "living on the
edge" makes edgework compelling to some individuals.
Ψ Extreme sports are forms of recreation that include apparent risk of injury or death & are attractive & thrilling as a result.
Ψ Drug Abuse - using a drug in a quantity or a manner that is harmful to physical, cognitive, or psychosocial well-being.
• Drug addiction - a condition of drug dependence such that the absence of the given drug in the individual’s system produces
a drive - physiological, psychological, or both- to ingest more of the drug.
Ψ Use vs. Abuse:
• One time or occasional use can constitute abuse not because of quantity or frequency but because of consequences.
• Drug Use before age 18 often becomes abusive & can sometimes become addictive between ages 19 and 23.
• Drug Use in the early 20’s is a time of heavy drinking & high marijuana consumption.
• Drug Use peaks at age 23 with the greatest use of cocaine & other drugs.
• Rates of addiction & abuse fall over the years of adulthood (tipping point: age 30), a decline attributed to both maturity
& marriage.
Ψ Drug Use - Some Causes of high rates of use follow.
• Delay Discounting: The tendency to undervalue, or downright ignore, future consequences & rewards in favor of more
immediate gratification.
• Generation Forgetting due to a lack of personal witnessing.
• Genetic temperament - attraction to excitement, intolerance of frustration & vulnerability to depression
• Group activities - parties, concerts, spectator sports• Life style - stress & personal attitudes
• Life style - Having friends who use drugs!ViolenceYoung Adult Males; • Between ages 15-25: 1 U.S. male in every
100 dies violently.
• Are at increased risk for any kind of violent death from car crashes, gang shootings, suicide, & homicide.
Social Norms
Ψ Social Norms are the standards of behavior within a given society or culture. They can be misperceived! Contemporary
emerging adults immersed in limited social settings may well misjudge the "norm" for all sorts of behaviors.
Ψ The social norms approach is a method of reducing risky behavior that uses emerging adults’ desire to follow social
norms by making them aware, through the use of surveys, of the prevalence of various behaviors within their peer groups.
-------------------------------------------------------
Robert C. Gates